Psychology: define the question, the measure and the comparison
Psychology studies mind and behaviour using scientific methods. Its questions can concern learning, memory, development, social interaction and many other areas. Understanding how an observation was made is essential before turning it into an explanation of what people think or why they act.
An everyday idea needs a clear definition before it can be studied
Terms like "attention", "stress" or "memory" often have multiple meanings based on either the experience itself or some aspect of the experience. A study's objective has to be defined prior to the method of measuring the identified characteristics. Once defined, the definition will influence what evidence is gathered. Studies that appear to be opposing each other (i.e., two studies seemingly in conflict) might actually be studying different aspects of an everyday term.
Consider a hypothetical study of recalling words. When a word is recalled immediately upon presentation vs. when a word is recognized hours later, these are both different tasks. Each type of task may be useful, however, neither supplies equivalent data about memory. After you complete your revisions, provide the specific activities performed by subjects before providing the broader psychological term. That provides clarity regarding how the question and observed behaviors were connected.
Reports, observations and experiments provide different evidence
Psychological researchers can collect and analyze data through various means. People can provide self-reporting data via surveys, behavioral data can be obtained via observations or experimental designs that involve structured tasks and/or other forms of measurement. Experimental designs can examine the effects of manipulating a variable under controlled conditions. Observational studies examine or compare what occurs without the researcher manipulating the exposure. How the study is designed affects which conclusions can be reached based on the findings as well as which alternative explanations remain plausible.
Compare a hypothetical survey about sleeping habits with a hypothetical performance test after participants had varying amounts of time to sleep. Identify the type of evidence provided by each type of test and what is left unknown. Participants' reports cannot be dismissed simply because they differ from some other form of measurement; similarly, do not treat a participant’s report as if it addresses every conceivable biological question. Multiple data sources can provide complementary information.
Variation and context belong beside the average
Individuals typically exhibit variability within groups. Behavior can be influenced by environment, experience, and demands placed upon individuals performing a task. A group mean does not indicate how all members of that group behaved; moreover, there is no indication why one member behaved differently than others. The methodology used to sample participants, compare groups, and measure responses matters greatly. Statistical analyses must therefore be viewed in conjunction with those factors rather than independently from them.
When writing a summary about a study, include who participated and whether the findings may possibly generalize to similar populations. Do not convert a positive relationship between variables into an absolute rule concerning personality traits or abilities. A good explanation separates the data collected during an investigation, a potential causal mechanism and additional evidence required to support the explanation. Additionally, this assists in recognizing limitations associated with using short, online questionnaires to assess participants.
Understanding people requires respect for their participation and circumstances
Research should clearly outline participation requirements and procedures; protect participant welfare and privacy; follow applicable ethical guidelines. Applied psychologists require relevant education and training and empirical support for their applied work. General descriptions of theories do not equate to assessments or treatment plans for individuals. Responsibilities related to professional roles vary significantly depending on the working location.
When creating an application for a theory, link the intended application to the empirical evidence that supports it, and list the expected outcomes of the application. Where feasible, include participants’ perspectives. Do not make diagnoses based solely on a brief vignette or quiz score. Concerns about distress, functioning or treatment should receive evaluation from an appropriately trained professional rather than labeled via an introductory description.
Check your understanding
A short quiz, with an explanation after each answer.
Why define what a study means by memory or stress?
Revisit the most difficult section for you to develop an example for this topic without reviewing this page. Describe your revised version of the rationale example. Take the quiz again after revisiting the examples. Being able to explain your rationale is far more valuable than knowing where a correct answer falls.